The Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) saw the first human occupation of Britain by nomadic hunter-gather groups with stone tool technology. People would have migrated freely from Europe since the two landmasses were not yet separated by water. Archaeological remains from this period found in England can be far older than those Scotland, since the northern part of Britain was covered by ice until around 12000 BC.
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The Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age) was the period after the end of the last ice age, during which time Britain became an island. People were still primarily hunter-gatherers and made use of microliths – small, specialised stone tools made from flint. Though rare, the first evidence for camps or settlements can be found during this period in the form of small timber huts or tent-like structures.
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The Neolithic (New Stone Age) saw huge cultural changes across Britain with the arrival of farming communities from Europe, bringing domesticated crops and animals. People had stronger ties to the land and started building more permanent dwellings and creating monuments such as henges, stone circles and cairns. As well as stone tools, the use of pottery became widespread.
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The Bronze Age begins with the first evidence of metalworking for bronze tools and objects. Society was based primarily on farming, with people living in roundhouse settlements, or in some cases, the first hillforts. Artefacts of jewellery and weaponry become more common, indicating the rise of social hierarchies. People still built large stone monuments, though burial traditions shifted from communal to individual practices, often including a specific type of pottery known as a Beaker.
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The Iron Age begins with the first evidence of ironworking and marks the end of prehistory (the time before written records). Society was still based around farming, but we start to see more elaborate roundhouse settlements, brochs, and hillforts as a means of displaying status and wealth, as well as various craftworking industries. In England, the Iron Age ends with the arrival of the Romans in AD 43, while in Scotland Iron Age society and culture persists throughout the Roman era.
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Britain was first invaded by the Romans in AD 43, starting in southern England but eventually progressing across the island to as far north as Aberdeenshire and Inverness-shire. Roman occupation saw the rise of the first towns, as well as military buildings, roads, and the introduction of a writing system and coinage. Roman occupation ended in Britain in AD 410, having already withdrawn from Scotland hundreds of years before.
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The Early Medieval Period, lasted from the end of the Roman occupation up to the Norman Invasion in 1066. In England, it is often called the Anglo-Saxon Period, while in Scotland it can also be known as the Pictish Period. These centuries saw the emergence of distinct kingdoms, such as that of Alfred the Great in Wessex, as well as the rise and spread of Christianity with monastic settlements, carved stones and illuminated manuscripts. Archaeological finds indicate that people were producing prestigious objects from metals, pottery and glass to display their wealth and status. Towards the end of this period, many parts of Britain saw Viking raiding and settlement.
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The Viking Age in Britain is thought to start in AD 793 with the first recorded Viking raid at Lindisfarne. The initial part of the Viking Age was characterised by raids, particularly on monastic settlements. Later, the Vikings established more permanent settlement in parts of Britain, such as the Danelaw in northeast England and the Norse Kingdom of the Isles in the Orkney, Shetland and Western Isles of northern Scotland. In England, the Viking Age ended with the Norman Conquest in AD 1066, while in Scotland, Norse rule continued in some places until around AD 1300.
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The Medieval Period (sometimes known as the Middle Ages) saw the foundation of the England and Scotland as sovereign nations. England grew out of the united Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms, while in Scotland, the Gaelic and Pictish Kingdom of Alba was founded around AD 900. This period saw the establishment of many towns and cities still present today as well as the construction of large military buildings, such as castles, and religious buildings, such as cathedrals.
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The Post-Medieval Period saw the evolution of the British culture into the society we recognise today. During this time, there was a huge expansion of scientific knowledge, industrialisation and urbanisation as well as wider global connections and movement of people across the world. Many archaeological sites are industrial in nature, associated with the mass production of objects such as bricks, bottles, ceramics and textiles. In Scotland, the Highland Clearances have left the ruinous remains of farming townships across many rural areas.
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19th and 20th Century Britain (which includes the Victorian Era 1837-1901) was characterised by the mass industrialisation of the country, which came alongside scientific advancements and the rapid growth of urban areas. New technologies, such as the railway and the telephone, were invented. These centuries also saw many social and political reforms, such as voting rights and trade unions, as well as advances in science, technology and medicine.
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The First World War (sometimes known as the Great War) was fought primarily in Europe, with the Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey fighting against the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, Russia, the United States and others. In Britain, archaeological remnants of the First World War tend to be in the form of defensive infrastructure, training grounds and practice trenches.
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The Second World War was fought primarily between the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy and Japan, and the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, the USA, the Soviet Union and China. In Britain, archaeological remnants of the Second World War include features such as military camps, airfields, radar stations, coastal defences and air raid shelters.
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